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somanypeoplepresent,anindividualmightjustassumethata victimisreceivinghelporthathelpisalreadyontheway. Social influence (Darley&Latane,1968;Darleyetal.,1973)and plu- ralisticignorance (Prentice&Miller,1996)explanations,onthe otherhand,reflectthenotionthatpeoplelooktootherstoevaluate anemergencysituation.Iftheotherspresentarejuststanding aroundandappearcalm,thenwould-behelpersinferthatperhaps thesituationreallyisnotanemergency.Smokespewingfroma ventmayjustindicateafoggyvent,notaburningfire.Cacioppo, Petty,andLosch(1986)morerecentlyofferedanotheraccountfor bystanderapathy,namely, confusionofresponsibility. Thisexpla- nationarguesthatwould-behelpersrefrainfromhelpingavictim inthepresenceofothersbecausetheydonotwanttobeperceived astheperpetratorofthevictim ’ spainandsuffering.Thatis,in somecases,itmightappeartoobserversthatsomeonehelpinga victimisactuallythecauseofthevictim ’ sharm. Althoughthesesituationalaccountsarecompelling(forare- view,seeLatane&Nida,1981)andarealllikelycontributorsto bystanderapathy,ourpurposeinthispaperistooffera nonsitu- ational accountthatcouldprovideanalternativeoradditional explanationforthefindings.However,wehastentoaddthat situationalandnonsituationalaccountsofbystanderapathyneed notbemutuallyexclusive.Aswereview,researchonpriming suggeststhatmerelyactivatingknowledgestructurescanaffect socialperceptionandbehavior(e.g.,Bargh,Chen,&Burrows, 1996;Higgins,Rholes,&Jones,1977).Inlightofthesefindings, weseektoexaminewhethermerelyactivatingtheconstructof groupinthemindsofparticipantscouldalsoresultinthebystander apathyeffect.Inparticular,weareinterestedinexaminingwhether activatingtheconstructofagroupofpeoplewhocouldnot possiblyhelpleadstoanimplicitbystandereffectonasubsequent helpingbehavior. PrimingAffectsSocialPerceptionandBehavior Barghetal.(1996)definedprimingas “ theincidentalactivation ofknowledgestructures,suchastraitconceptsandstereotypes ” (p. 230).Researchhasshownthatthecognitiveaccessibilityofthese typesofknowledgestructurescanhaverealandimportanteffects onsocialperceptionandbehavior(e.g.,Carver,Ganellen,From- ing,&Chambers,1983;Dijksterhuis,Spears,&Lepinasse,2000; Dijksterhuis&vanKnippenberg,1998;Epley&Gilovich,1999; Higginsetal.,1977;Kawakami,Young,&Dovidio,2000;Macrae &Johnston,1998;Neuberg,1988).Morespecifically,researchon primingeffectsonsocialbehaviorhasdemonstratedthatsubtle cuesorprimesintheenvironmentcansubsequentlyaffectbehav- ior.Forinstance,inanewbutalreadyclassicstudy,Barghetal. (1996)foundthatprimingtheelderlystereotypecanaffectpeo- ple ’ ssubsequentbehavior.Intheirstudy,participantswereprimed throughascrambledsentencetask.Intheelderlycondition,the sentencesincludedwordsrelatedtotheelderlystereotype(e.g., old,wrinkle,Florida ),whereasintheneutralcondition,thescram- bledsentencesincludedage-nonspecificwords.Findingsshowed thatparticipantswhowereprimedwiththeelderlystereotype walkedoutofthelaboratorysignificantlymoreslowlythandid participantsintheneutralcondition. Similarly,otherresearchlookingatprimingandbehaviorhas foundthatindividualsprimedwiththeconceptofprofessors performbetteronageneralknowledgetestthandocontrolpartic- ipants(Dijksterhuis&vanKnippenberg,1998).Themechanism underlyingtheseprimingeffectsisbasedonthepremisethat triggeringaknowledgestructuresuchasastereotypeactivatesthe semanticknowledgeassociatedwithit.Thissemanticknowledge includes,amongotherthings,certaintypesofbehaviors.For instance,partofthestoredrepresentationofelderlypersonsisthat theywalkslowly.Hence,whentheconstructorstereotypeofan elderlypersonisprimedinanindividual,thebehavioralrepresen- tationisactivated,andtheindividualwalksmoreslowly. Inadditiontoinfluencingbehaviordirectly,primingcanalso affectsocialperceptionand,asaconsequence,influencebehavior indirectly.Inthesecases,primingaffectspeople ’ sinternalcues, whichthenspilloverintotheirperceptionsofotherpeopleandthe socialworld.Forinstance,Higginsetal.(1977)demonstratedthat primingindividualswithconceptsrelatedtohostilityleadsthemto perceiveanambiguoustargetperson(e.g.,Donald)asmorehostile comparedwithindividualswhodonotreceivehostilityprimes. Otherresearchon self-schemata (e.g.,Markus,1977)and chronic accessibility (e.g.,Bargh&Thein,1985)speakstotheideathat peoplecanhavechroniccognitivefiltersthataffectsocialpercep- tion.Researchonrelationalschemas(Baldwin,1994,1995;Bald- win,Fehr,Keedian,Seidel,&Thomson,1993;Baldwin,Keelan, Fehr,Enns,&Koh-Rangarajoo,1996)alsodemonstratesthat primescanaffectsocialperception.Althoughthemechanismof theseprimesonsocialperceptionissimilartothatofsocial behavior,onecriticaldifferenceisthattheseprimedoractivated socialrepresentationscolorone ’ sperspectiveoftheworldand subsequentlyhaveindirecteffectsonone ’ sbehavior.Behavioral primes,ontheotherhand,aredirectlylinkedtoactualbehaviors. Tobetterunderstandhowprimescanaffectbehaviorindirectly throughinfluencingsocialperception,wecanlookatcompetitive primesusedinaPrisoner ’ sDilemmaGame(Neuberg,1988).In thisstudy,participantswereprimedwitheithercompetitiveor neutralprimesandthenbeganroundsofaPrisoner ’ sDilemma Gamewithanotherphantomparticipant.Participantsmadetheir firstmovebeforelearningthemoveofthephantomparticipant. Resultsshowedthatthecompetitiveprimeshadnoeffectonthe participant ’ sfirstmove,indicatingthattheprimesdidnotdirectly influenceparticipants ’ behavior.However,participantswithpre- disposedcompetitivedispositionswhoreceivedcompetitive primesexhibitedmorecompetitivebehavioronsubsequenttrials thandidthoseparticipantswithcompetitivepredispositionswho receivedneutralprimes.Thesefindingssuggestthatthecompeti- tiveprimesdidnotdirectlyleadtocompetitivebehaviorbutrather affectedtheparticipants ’ behaviorindirectlythroughtheirdis- tortedsocialperceptionofthephantompartner.Inotherwords,the competitivelensesoftheseparticipantsledthemtoperceivethe phantompartnerasbeingcompetitiveonlyaftertheylearnedthe partner ’ smove.Theirownbehaviorwasaffectedwhentheyre- spondedinkindtowhattheyperceivedwasacompetitivepartner. PrimingaSocialContext Researchhasclearlydemonstratedthatprimingknowledge structuressuchastraitconcepts,stereotypes,andbehavior-related wordscanhaverealandimportanteffectsonbothsocialpercep- tionandbehavior.Butwhatofmoremacrosituations?Isit 844 GARCIA,WEAVER,MOSKOWITZ,ANDDARLEY
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