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H OFSTRA H ORIZONS 5 tical parameter, based on the number of days ahead one is trying to estimate. Our initial efforts were to create, explore and evaluate possible technolo- gies using aircraft-based experiments to assess what might be valuable as satel- lite-based sensors, which would ulti- mately be used to observe as many sea surface and air-sea interaction quantities as possible. These would include wave heights, wave lengths and wind speed (including the stress on the sea surface). In the recent decade, I have concen- trated on developing a system for meas- uring wind stress on ocean surfaces using satellite radar from space. This method of measurement has the ability to measure sea surface wind stress, or the force on the seas’s surface created by wind, and also to “correct” these wind measurements when rain interferes with the radar across the areas we would like to observe. Since rain can, at any given time, exist over about 5 percent of the world’s oceans, the removal of the inter- ference it causes is a high priority to sci- entists and meteorologists using these wind measurements for interpreting ocean phenomena. Unfortunately, the erroneous wind data is commonly found in the vicinity of synoptic scale (cover- ing many hundreds of miles) and dynamic atmospheric systems, such as cyclones and frontal boundaries, where measurements of surface winds are most important for scientific and operational (weather prediction) investigations. Origins of Satellite Remote Sensing Radar, the “Invention that Changed the World” [Buderi, 1996], was invented in the 1930s and played a decisive role during World War II. Many scientific leaders at the time stated that, consider- ing the broad scope of its usage on land, sea and air, radar contributed more to theUnited States’ World War IIvictory than the atomic bomb. Radar quickly became indispensable for all military and civilian aviation. During the wartime years, radar was a critical factor in combat operations from aircraft and Navy vessels. Its potential for meteorol- ogy, to precisely locate and measure atmospheric events, was also recognized and exploited for forecasting weather changes to guide mission decisions. The field of Radar Meteorology thus began with World War II. Radar is also known as an “active” sensor because it generates and transmits its own electro- magnetic energy. These waves are reflected by whatever medium or surface they encounter, and are then returned to the source where they are stored, meas- ured and interpreted. This capability enables the study of the atmosphere in three dimensions, and the study of land and ocean surfaces under all conditions and circumstances. The data can be made available immediately for urgent applications or later for extended scien- tific investigations. Our current televi- sion-based weather forecasters show us the color-coded images of rain locations, intensities and their motions. The field of satellite remote sensing for earth observations began in April 1960 with TIROS-1, the first meteoro- logical observer weighing all of about 200 pounds, whose launch was spurred on by the Soviet Union’s Sputnik in 1957. TIROS stands for Television and Infrared Observation Satellite. Congress delegated to the then U.S. Weather Bureau the responsibility for managing and maintaining these satellites. While TIROS-1 consisted of only a TV camera to observe cloud formations, seven months later it was joined by TIROS-2, whose instruments operated in both the visible and infrared portions of the elec- tromagnetic spectrum. Both TIROS-1 and TIROS-2 are designated as “passive” instruments, which only receive the radiation produced by thermal emission from the atmosphere or the Earth’s sur- face, or their reflected sunlight. The invention of these instruments was fol- lowed by the invention of dozens of big- ger and better passive instruments, but still using the same “physics,” that is, visible and infrared frequencies. However, in the early 1970s, another innovation was made; microwave instru- ments operating at much lower frequen- cies were able to demonstrate their abili- ty to “see through” clouds and often through rain, greatly improving weather forecasting skills and advancing scientif- ic knowledge. By that time, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) was formed Figure 2: SeaWinds measurement geometry illustrating the antenna beam locations for the different polarizations. Inner beam is horizontal polarization; outer beam is vertical polarization. SeaWinds orbit track 802 km nadir track cross track outer beam inner beam 1100 km 1245 km 7 km/sec 18 rpm 700 km 900 km
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